Political symbols in contemporary Hinduism

 Course:

Indian Cultural Studies

by:

1. Dr. Amir H. Zekrgoo

aRTICLE

 by:

Seyed Mostafa Mostafavi

1. A Student 

Faculty of world studies - University of Tehran

1392/9/2

In the name of God the munificent the merciful

The question of this study is, dose Hindu political players use Hindu religion symbols during their activity to gain power or the goals? And how and which religious symbol are at the service of political contemporary Hinduism? My hypothesis is that, political Hinduism is borrowing and using religion symbols as their symbols during their work in political field and they try to catch Hindu people attention by using this way.

  India emerges as potpourri of religions and cultures in 21^th. Religion has deep roots in Indian mind and life; and most of Indian philosophy and world conceptions are the outcome of their different religious believes. There is a kind of combination between Indian culture, philosophy, Art and their religious believe in this old civilization. During long Indian civilization history, they tried to save or point out their religious or their philosophy of thought by a kind of artistic works. The masterpieces of artistic works like religious epic, novels, sculptures (which carving in stone or made in metal shape), or painting on the walls or papers... are received from ancient time. Based on this reality, we can say Indian religions took arts at their religious or philosophical thought service in the best and at high possible way. Thus most of their art works are related to their idea about three hundred thousand million of Hindu gods and goddesses (deva and deity) that estimate more than 330 million that they had been worshiped for long time in different stages of Indian religious history. Therefore India can be named as lands of gods and goddesses; the gods that every one regard as symbol of something in the being of world, from starting the world and its process till its finishing and its process. Bringing such vast amount of gods and goddesses to realty is fairly impossible; hence they change them to symbols and idols to make them visible and understandable for common men. Visualizing deep spiritual concepts and especially the concept of truth, which constructs foundation of religious art, is very difficult; but looking to Indian religions and arts show that during long history of Indian Civilization, religious thoughts and arts are accompanied each other and developed and flourished each other both. As a result today vast variety of arts in different shapes and branches are available in Indian subcontinent and especially in India; with association with Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism religions. The common character of most Indian religious arts and writing are, such valuable masterpieces were made by nameless and unknown artists; and they didn’t try to leave a name in the history of art and philosophy; although their work shows their developed minds and their skilful hands; consequently there are many fantastic books, artistic stone carving, well designed building, meaningful and beautiful painting… that their writers or artistes is not known. Maybe it can say they saw themselves against the gods and goddesses nothing, to mention even their names; and they considered their works just as what they have to do for them.

Now Hinduism is as a dominate religion in India, that official statistics announce its follower’s population more than 80% of Indian. And India the country which emerges as a most important country among south Asian countries, and also important in Asia which is seeking global level participate for itself in all aspects of human factors, especially economic, culture, politic...; India’s Hinduism is backing by an ancient culture and civilization which is still showing itself alive and presents itself in its people life strong, as much as necessary; and Indian are familiar with these old religious believes till now. It is a unique religion that had nonstop history of being and invaders or out comers could not change it completely. Although it takes some effects from them and experiences some reformer movements like Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism from inside and Islam and Christianity from outside which divert people’s minds to new way of thinking, but these new reformist religions also help Indian sacred arts as well as Hinduism arts to improve itself; Hinduism consider new Jainism and especially Buddhism as a new chapter in Hinduism development and they consider Buddha as the Avatar of one of the Hindu’s gods; but the fact is this, that Buddhism, Jainism and new Sikhism were a kind of protests against Hindu religious believe, but apart from this reality, this reforms also help Indian religious arts to find new branch of thought or new philosophy fields to flourish its spiritual’s arts. And these new religious characters in Hinduism also show themselves in the shapes of new architectures style, paints, sculptures and other kind of arts that engage with new icons and new ideas which create by new religions.

This people during tens centuries history, try to compress, mention and present their highest religious and philosophical thought through simple symbols, so symbolism has long history there, and still is using by them. Hundreds of symbols has been representing and are advocating of their thoughts and make it touchable and objective for inside and outside observes.

The religious arts (as most powerful one in the world), have an effective role in transferring and conveying of religion concepts. Hinduism as well as other subcontinent’s religions uses arts and symbolism in highest level in this regard. These arts had big role in continuous and making Hindu thought or religion visible and understandable, by using symbols and other visual artistic characters. As the gods and goddesses in Hindu religion has been reduced to some symbols and idols to make them easy to touch and understandable; worship process in Hindu religion have the same way as other Hindu religion aspects had, and they made a kind of “symbolic system” [S.DASGUPTA-pag.13-14] in this regards also, for instance the process of transferring Brahman and it shifting to symbol is drown as follow by Dr Surendranath Dasgupta in his book:

 “The process of changing of the Brahman into the Aranyaka thought is signified by transference of values from the actual sacrifices to their symbolic representations and meditations which were regarded as being productive of various earthly benefits. Thus we find in the Brhadaranyaka (l. i) that instead of a horse sacrifice the visible universe is to be conceived as a horse and meditated upon as such. The dawn is the head of the horse, the sun is the eye, wind is its life, fire is its mouth and the year is its soul, and so on.” [S.DASGUPTA-pag.35].

As Dr Dasgupta explains in his book the values as well as gods or world life process represented by some symbols in Hindu arts; and if a bystander doesn’t be familiar with these symbols, cannot comprehend Hinduism as well. So an artistic display will be meaningful when the meaning of symbols is decoded.

The variety of symbols are chosen in this regards, from human body to some other natures phenomenon and they borrowed to used as symbols in eastern religions like Hinduism and Buddhism…This symbolism especially during Vedas and Vedanta era was expanded, the period that nature’s phenomenon, consider as god’s reaction to human actions; thus every things took a relation to gods, goddesses and Deva satisfied or annoyed. As a result they made un-visible gods and thought able to be seen and take touch ability form, and it is become possible by symbolizing everything and explains them by the set of symbols.

 The founders of Hindu religion tens centuries ago expertly compress strong meaning in the form of signs and symbols and use them in their religion aspects; therefore a symbol is just an indication to a strong and deep thought. The art of making symbols is showing the complexity of the old generation minds and their dominance over their religious thought. Symbolising in Hinduism developed so much that even the sound of alphabets also borrowed to mention some religious thought:

“In this way the different consonant sounds are regarded as the prototypes of different manifestations of world-energy, and these again are regarded as the symbols of different kinds of gods or superintendents of energy. An assemblage of some of these alphabets in different orders and groups, called also the lotus or the wheel (chakra) would stand for the assemblage of different types of complex powers. The meditation and worship of these chakras would thus be expected to bring the objective powers typified by them under control." [S.DASGUPTA-pag.58-vol.3]

 As a consequence the religious aspect of art in Indian religions is very strong. Carved sculptures convoyed the religious theories of life as base of every philosophy. And most of Hindu or others religious temples were decorated by pieces of art manufactures; and arts were completely at the service of religious desirers. Symbolism approaches in Indian religions borrowed so many objects like animals in full body or part body and others at their service to describe their thoughts and principle; Fish, loin, pig, snake, elephant, monkey, tiger, and cow… are the example of this process of changing animal or objects to symbolize characters. Study of religion development in India’s art show how early symbolization was established or detailed the meaning of historic or religious expression. In Indian symbolism development of life from animal to half-human and half animal and also full human embodiment of gods are obvious and it show a process in this regard.

  Political symbols are the same as other kind of symbolic items, which are carrying by Hindu icon as well as gods and goddesses. The objects (as symbolize things) that artists or religious philosophers - who created them - put them in the hands of religious Icons, shows the role which they consider for them or, the expectations that the creators of such an artistic Icon had from them. This kind of symbolizing made some Hindu gods and goddesses as political characters that have especial political mission to change power direction among human players or political icons. Political symbolism is show itself more clearly when mythological epics or other kind of religious gods performances are come to exist, represent of several weapons - as tool of every political force - or various types of item like military wearing or armour etc that were used by Hindu Gods, shows their political aspects; and it is some example of mixture of religious mission as well as political mission for them. In the following line we will consider some important examples of weapons which used by Hindu gods and goddesses, the weapons that always used by political forces that seeking power or they want to restore a applicative situation:

The Narayanastra ( नारायणास्त्र ) is a deadliest and powerful weapon in the hand of Vishnu when he go down in his Narayan avatar shape. This weapon throws millions of missiles all together. The god Aswathama used this weapon against the Pandavas as it mentioned in Mahabharata.

The Varunastra (वरुणास्त्र) is the water weapon used by the god Varuna (as the master of the oceans and rivers in world). The most amazing reality of this weapon is that, this weapon can be carved in any shape just like flowing water. Many great warriors have made use of this weapon against their enemies like Arjun, Dronacharya, Dhrishtadhuymna or Satyaki and many more. This weapon could be gain by full mental concentration and meditation on Varuna or Shiva. This weapon must be used with great care and skills as one single mistake of the user or inexperienced warrior can prove to be fatal to him.

 The Chakhrem (चक्रं) or Chakra is the circular weapon that has sharp cuts at the outer edge. The enemy is attacked by throwing the weapon at him. It is also recognized as circles or Chalikar. The Chakra has a very important position in mythology as it is upheld by Krishna. Now Sikhs are associated with this weapon as they wear it on their arms, around necks and sometimes on their turbans too. It is made of deferent metals. This weapon is used against the enemy by twirling it in the index finger and thrown out with spin to add more power and force. Krishna used to hold this every time in his index finger.

 Shiva Dhanush (शिव धनुष) is the divine bow which upheld by Shiva. This weapon possessed mysterious energy and used against the enemy for its full devastation.

 Brahmastra (ब्रह्‍मास्‍त्र) is the death defying weapon created and held by Brahma. It is said that when Brahma is upset he used it to destroy his enemy to maintain his Dharma and Satya. The weapon not only destroy the one for whom it was used but also annihilate the environment and the land where it was used became infertile. Sometimes it also becomes the foremost reason for the cracks in the land. According to Sanskrit mythology it is believed that invocation to this Brahmastra can be made through the key phrase and it can be used only once in a life time. It can be achieved through the distinguished amount of concentration. It is used by Vishvamitra against Vasishth, Ram against Ravana, and Arjun against Ashwatthama etc.

 The Vajra (वज्र) is a metal weapon symbolizing spiritual power and strength. It was used by Indra for killing and destroying all sinners. It is generally considered as Diamond which can cut any substance but not itself and thunderbolt which has irresistible power and force. This weapon was made by divine instrument maker Tvastra for Indra. He used this against Vritra to kill him as he took the form of a serpent. Vritra was so powerful that no weapon till that date could destroy him so he (Indra) went to Vishnu for seeking help to recover his kingdom. Vishnu revealed him that this Asura would be killed only with the weapon made of bones of wise. And so after obtaining this weapon Vishnu successfully recovered his kingdom.

 The Gada (गदा) or Gadha is a weapon holds an important position in the history of Hindu religion. It was carried by Hanuman, Bhim, and others who were symbols of power and strength. The Gada also moves around the user’s body to gather life force. It is the shape of a ball which symbolizes the earth rotating on its axis, the handle. It is a symbol of great power, spirit, bravery and strength.

 The Sudarshana Chakra (सुदर्शन चक्र) is a circular disk like weapon which has 108 serrated edges, Vishnu used to hold it in one of his four hands. Chakra also symbolizes that Vishnu also used to own celestial bodies and the heavens. It is used for the ultimate devastation of enemy of law and order. Sudarshana is composed of two words Su which means divine and Darshana which means vision and Chakra alone signifies mobility. It is the mobile weapon used to shield the negative powers and devils from our body. Vishnu used to hold it in his index finger of the rear right hand and continue using to revolve around this finger.

  The Trishula (त्रिशूल) symbolizes the ‘rich’ and polyvalent. It is the weapon of Hindu god Mahadeva and is said to have been used to sever the original head of Ganesha. Many other gods and goddesses also hold Trishula as their weapon, including Goddess Durga. The three points of the Trishula symbolize various meanings in various regard, commonly the trinities (creation, maintenance and destruction); the three Gunas (the past, present and future). Shiva’s Trishula is said to have devastated the three worlds: the physical world, the fore father’s world and the world of mind. Trishula also symbolizes the Triratna of Buddha; but it is obviously as war symbols recognized by the Hindu outfit and they use it as symbol of war against their enemy; Bajrang Dal is one them that we will see in follow lines.

So as it is cleared by this example the holly gods and goddesses of Hindu are armed and they use them to achieve their goal by these weapons and also give them to their follower or servants to help them also. Political aspect of Hindu gods is very clear and hardware with software power is at their service to gain the goals. Now we will consider some symbolic meaning in some political signs in contemporary Hindu community in India:

 Symbolic meaning of India National flag:

 The India national Flag (तिरंगा) as the national symbol of India in all formal position has three equal size horizontal colours with dark green in the bottom and white at its centre and deep saffron (केसर) on its top side. It has a navy-blue colour wheel (chakra or charkha) that have access to the Sarnath lion Capital of Ashoka the great, at the centre of white band. It is related to dharma. Chakra has 24 spokes. On 22 July 1947 just 24 days prior to independent’s day (15 august) in the constituent assembly Dr. S. Radhakrishnan described the meaning of these symbols as follow:

“Bhagwa or the saffron colour denotes renunciation of disinterestedness. Our leaders must be indifferent to material gains and dedicate themselves to their work. The white in the centre is light, the path of truth to guide our conduct. The green shows our relation to soil, our relation to the plant life here on which all other life depends. The Ashoka Wheel in the centre of the white is the wheel of the law of dharma. Truth or satya, dharma or virtue ought to be the controlling principles of those who work under this flag. Again, the wheel denotes motion. There is death in stagnation. There is life in movement. India should no more resist change, it must move and go forward. The wheel represents the dynamism of a peaceful change.” [3]

The Saffron as one of the holiest colour is strongly associated with Hinduism; it is colour of fire as the symbol of purity as fire burnt impurities. It is also symbol of Supreme Being. Fire worship is backed to Vedic era when the Aryans worship it as holly being even now fire has main symbolic meaning in Hindu prayer. This colour is used by holly men (Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism) and they wear this colour as a symbol of seeking for light. The Rajput as warrior caste in Hindu hierarchy uses this colour in war.

The green colour is the symbol of peace and happiness, and represents the nature as it is very important respected in Hinduism especially during Vedic era and also now.

The white colour also represents purity, cleanliness; peace and knowledge, as the goddess of knowledge Sarasvati also wear white colour and position of white lotus. This colour associate to the highest Hindu caste, Brahmans and they use it, as Knowledge and purity directly associate with this caste. It also related to spiritual reincarnation and the philosophy of covering face with white ashes by religion leaders in Hinduism refer to this symbolizing. At the mourning time also Hindu families wear white cloth. So white colour that is take position in the middle of Indian national flag has also deep meaning in Hinduism.

Symbolic meaning of India National Congress Party flag:

 India National Congress party (INC) flag is the same as India national flag; with this difference that instead of the Asoka’s Wheel, they put an open right hand in its white band; it also noticeable that the Republic of India’s flag, was INC flag before independent that changed to National flag after independent.

Some Hindu common Symbol meaning:

There are some common symbols in Hinduism that most of Hindu group use them in their flags and symbolic signs; one of them is the OM or AUM. That is the most important symbol for Hindu as the Cross is Impotent for Christian. OM is the combination of three Sanskrit letters A, U, M and it is related to Brahman or the absolute as the sources of existences and consider as sound of creation time. So most of Hindu prays are start with this narration.

OM as a religious Hindu symbol is added to flag of political Hindu outfits and show, there is a relation between the outfits to this religion. It is the holiest sign among them.

The swastika is another symbol for Hindu and from religious side is transferred to politic. It is like the Nazi emblem; as a broken Cross. It is a pictorial symbol of eternal nature of the Brahman. All its directions coverage shows absoluteness concepts. Swastika is a Sanskrit word with SU means good, and “Astati” that mean to exist.

 Symbolic meaning of Bharatiya Janata Party flag

The BJP as second India party has three symbols in its flag; two vertical bands with green and Saffron and also a blue lotus flower in saffron colour part.  So all the symbols that is available in this flag related to the Hinduism.  This kind of using pure Hindu symbols is one of the differences between INC and BJB which the Hindu symbols have more presence in BJP flag than INC. This fact show that how much BJP and INC are careful about Hinduism as religion. Lotus had been associated with Hindu gods and goddesses. The Hindu gods have been used lotus to take position on it. So lotus is related to godly world and purity, wealth, rebirth, beauty, youth, life and enlighten. Lotus is growing in the water and mud but it is not same as the situation that is growing up in; it does not even touch water which live in. The relation between lotus and devotee describe as follow in Bhagavad Gita:   

"One who performs his duty without attachment, surrendering the results unto the Supreme Lord, is unaffected by sinful action, as the lotus leaf is untouched by water."

The Sarnath Ashoka loin Symbolic meaning:

  The Lion Capital of Ashoka the great is the symbol of all government branches in India. They use it on the top of all formal letters, on the Indian money note, flags… also. It is the emblem of Indian government from 1950; four loins that standing back to back. It is belong to ancient India time that Loin, Chakra, bull, Horse as most symbolic factor in the mind of Aryans was collected in this historic object related to the Maurya dynasty. Chakra is as symbol of dharma and other symbols that rooted in long history of the people who made Indian civilization. An upside down louts whom these symbols are standing on it; is another part of this symbolic emblem. The Ashoka symbol which rooted to about 250 BC now is shifted to modern India government symbolic vision and they are using it as their symbol. 

  The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) Symbolic flag:

  The RSS (National Patriotic Organization) is one of the important radical Hindu organizations that are considered as mother of other Hindu nationalist groups (The Sangh Parivar). The symbol of this organization is a plain saffron flag. The RSS is founded in 1925 with the goal of Supporting Hindu nationalism and upholding Hindu Traditions. Although RSS announce itself as a social movement rather than a political party but it has important political movement so its activity have frozen so many time in its history by the government of India. Now it is known as socio-political organisation. RSS members have gathering in all corner of India and they have Physical and mental training program, through some group discussions, meetings and exercises which are organizing by their group, and they are trying to achieve readiness. This activity made them prepare for organization’s activities and involving in local civilian development. RSS as social worker have relief and rehabilitation activity during disasters. These activities have been organized by RSS base on its key principle of “selfless service to the nation”. Uniting all Hindus and construct a strong India is the most important idea for RSS. The organisations within the Sangh Parivar and many others groups work side by side with RSS that spread in all parts of society in India and abroad. Numerous other Hindu organisations take inspiration from the RSS's philosophy. The saffron flag is the main visible Hindu symbol that carries by this socio-political organization.

Symbolism in Bajrang Dal logo and flag:

   The Bajrang Dal is founded in 1984 with “Service, safety, and culture" slogan. Actually is the armed wing of one of the main “Sangh Parivar” organization with the name of Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP). It founded on the base of Hindutva Ideology. It is an Uttar Pradesh (UP) group that now vast itself all around India. Stopping cow slaughter and building Ram temple in Ayodhya (Fizabad in UP), Krishna temple in Mathura (UP) and Kashi Vishwanath temple in Varanasi (UP) are their goal. It is noticeable that all this temple now are some masterpiece mosques that the Babri mosque in Ayodhya were demolished in 1990s by them and Mathura and Varanasi mosques are available and till now they could not destroyed them. They (same as other Sangh Parivar’s group) involved in so many sectarian and communal riots against minority all around India. Visible Hindu religious symbols like the Trishula that show itself in the shape of two knife and also the Hanuman, one of the holiest warrior in the Mahabharata with a Gada in the hand that is showing fighting time; and also riding on a tiger which related to the Shiva and OM sign that show religious aspects of Bajrang Dal in their symbolic sign; and also a map of India that add to this religious signs and make the political side of their symbolism are the characters of this hardliner Hindu group.   

 Symbolism in Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) logo and flag:

  The Vishva Hindu Parishad (विश्व हिन्दू परिषद) or “World Hindu Council” is one of the important one among Hindu nationalist organizations that founded in 1964. Its youth wing is Bajrang Dal and women’s wing is Durga Vahini. The VHP volunteers are known for their hard work to promote and restore Hinduism, to expand unity and pride between all Hindus by its social service plans, encourage the construction and restoration of Hindu temples, confrontation with conventional practices in Hinduism like the caste system, conflicting to cow (as holly being in Hinduism) slaughter or confrontation with conversion of Hindus to other religions and taking up issues in the interest of Hindus such as decide on the Ayodhya dispute between Muslim and Hindu are some of their activities. Its symbol is the banyan (درخت انجیر معابد) tree as holly tree in Hinduism and saffron colored flag with OM, Swastika and sward signs on it. VHP considers Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs as part of the greater Hindu family. Their aims are strengthen the Hindu Society, protect, promote and propagate Hindu values. They consider world mission for him so the used world map as holder of their flag. Combination of religion and politics is clearly mentioned in their symbolic sign and flag.

Symbolic flag of Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha:

 The Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha (अखिल भारत हिन्‍दू महासभा) or “All-India Hindu Assembly” is a political party founded in 1914 in Amritsar to represent Hindus as religious majority of India. It red flag (Dhavja) is the flag that use on most of Hindu temple and festivals; means victory, that have an OM sign which covered by a sun a Swastika sign and sward. RSS was its competitor. It believed in the superiority of Hindu culture, religion and heritage. The Mahasabha promoters believe that Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists are also Hindu in terms of national and political identity. They believe that Islam and Christianity are foreign religions; and their holy places is located in other pleases out of India (Arabia, Palestine and Rome), and that Indian Muslims and Christians are Hindu family who were converted by force to these religions. At various points in its history, the party called for the re-conversion of Muslims and Christians to Hinduism. The Mahasabha opposed socialism and communism as corrupt foreign ideologies that do not represent India's native needs and conditions. The symbolic flag of this party also is full of Hindu symbols and they also have mix religion and politics to gain their goals.

Symbolic flag of Shiv Sena:

The Shiv Sena (Army of Shiva) is another Hindu outfit that mostly is active in Maharashtra state. An agree tiger in a plain saffron field is its flag. The tiger is symbol of Shiva one the important Hindu god. Shiv Sena was founded in 1966 and we can say it was a Marathi movement and against migrant who were coming to Bombay (the capital of Maharashtra) but it Hindu religion factor also made them as extremist nationalist in this regard and they participate in numerous riots against minority especially against Muslim there. They were successful to gain power so many times in local state election and in nationwide size also allied by BJP.

There are a lot of Hindu outfit which use religious symbols in their flag and try to gain Hindu people attention to their activity and in some period of time they were successful to take power in India.

Conclusion:

As it is clear so many Hindu religious signs and symbols are using and borrowing by religious-political groups and they were successful also in this regard and the history of this groups show some successes in their activity, for example BJP running national government during 1998 till 2004 and also state achievements by Shiv Sena in Maharashtra... can be name in this regards.

Combination of politics and religion put some of the member of majority (the Hindus) in front of minority; and affected constitutional Secularism factor which recognized by the founder of new India in constitution. So from the eve of independent till now, Indian minority faced with cruel mascaras that the three last ones was Gujarat riots in 2002 that Muslim families were killed and burnt and also the Orissa riot that the Christian Missionary were attacked, and the Muzaffarnagar riots that Muslim families were attacked and leaves so many lives. Sectarian and communal riot under flag of political parties who mix politics and religion lead communities with religious base to clash with each other systemically. It is the dangers full confrontation; because in these clashes the two sides feel himself as representative of God and so they will became crueller to do their duty from God.  So the parties which shaped on religious nationalism borrowed their symbols from religion to following power in the name of religions.    

References:

1-       A HISTORY of INDIAN PHILOSOPHY- By SURENDRANATH DASGUPTA - VOLUME I,2,3,4,5 - CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS – 1957

2-       http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/2087/17/17_conclusion%20.pdf

3-       http://www.mahapolice.gov.in/mahapolice/jsp/temp/html/flag_code_of_india.pdf 

4-       Other various available sources on the net

نوشته شده در یکشنبه سوم آذر ۱۳۹۲ ساعت 21:0 شماره پست: 354

+ نوشته شده در یکشنبه سوم آذر ۱۳۹۲ ساعت 21:0 شماره پست: 354

In the name of GOD

 “[The] great problem of the near future will be American imperialism, even more than British imperialism [A]”

“India is today embarked on a journey inspired by many dreams. We welcome having America by our side. There is much we can accomplish together [B].”

 US-India relation has been never cut during the cold war but it had so many bad events for both side; but this relation flourished during last two decade. 1990s and 2000s was full of events that lifted Indo-US relation from being in two deferent rivalry fronts, to a strategic partnership level.

India made itself ready for the Post-USSR collapsing era, in early 1990s, by opening its economy to western capital, by adopting an important reform in its privet foreign capital acceptance regime; so a kind of liberalizing policies in economy started by this time; the reforms happened when India had been faced with big economic crises internally and they were observing the signals of USSR collapsing, externally. So it was a considerable step and opportunity for Indian side, toward revising and adjusting its relation with western bloc, to finding a way to strategic relationship with them, especially correcting its strategic imbalance with the United States who was the monologue player in world matters. This revolutionary economic movement were welcomed by west side and at the top of them the USA; US also used this capacity to enter India is a mechanism that will use in maintaining balance in south Asia and farther Asia, with China; and this move evaluated as new paradigm that will have “an impact on the future strategic environment in the Asia–Pacific region [C]”.  

 As result of this move and reform, world FDI had chosen India as its destination and it start with $162 million in 1992 and increased to $2.14 billion in 1997; a 13-fold jumps just during 5 years [D]. It is noticeable that more than one-third of these investments were by U.S companies [E]. In political field also, the Bharatiya Janata Party's election manifesto was evaluated non-alignment as an outdated ideology and it was also a good signal for US in this regard from India opposition side in 1991. The hope for Indo-US relation raised and developed enough, the nuclear test by India in 1998 faced with the US several kinds of sanctions; But the two countries had footed on the way that even this act by India cannot bring to an end the process; so in march 2000 after two years, US-President Clinton visited India; the trip that were happened after 22 years, at the time that the right wing (BJP) were on the power.

Later on, India’s supporting President Bush's controversial nuclear missile defense initiative, made this two, closer and as the terrorist attack to US happened on the II September 2001, quick India’s offer full operational support to US war against terrorism, boosted their relation so fast that as reaction US government by 22 September, had lifted all sanctions against India that imposed from 1998 nuclear test; and its suspended bilateral defense policy group since 1998, was revived towards the end of 2001.

Kargil war in 1999 and US some help to Pakistani back forces withdrawing satisfied India and in somehow without war they return back their territories and the potential of another war is reduced.   A terrorist attack on the Indian parliament in December 2001, and the US’s pressured on Pakistan into a commitment on reduction cross-border terrorism in India was another factor in this regard to boost this movement forward. So September the eleven, 2001 made “security” as joint concern of the two countries; and they felled themselves with the same threat in this view. Their security relations with a focus on military-to-military contacts, counter-terrorism and intelligence cooperation, and defense trade [f] became a focused chapter after that.

Later on the two countries also put a signature on the bottoms of a 10-year defense framework agreement in 2005 to facilitate expanded bilateral security cooperation. In the new century, large-scale combined military exercises have become commonplace, and opening US-FBI office in India increase the intelligence cooperation in south Asia. Military cooperation in the Indian Ocean leads two countries to have joint bilateral and multilateral marine exercise that the Malabar is one of them that the 12^th series is done in 2012. U.S. arms sales to  India also started and now is underway so U.S. sales of military equipment to India had grown from zero in 2008 to around $8 billion in 2012; India as the world's largest arms importer, plans to spend about $100 billion during the next decade to upgrading its military equipments [g]; hence a positive trends can be seen and predict in bilateral security-related activities [H]. Among the defense-related pacts Washington has sought to conclude with New Delhi is the Logistics Support Agreement (LSA), which would permit the armed forces of both countries to enjoy reciprocal use of facilities for maintenance, servicing, communications, refueling, and medical care [I]. The agreement that till now was not be achieved.

 In 2002 the US initiated a regional security dialogue with India that pointed following shared interests in India's subcontinent, including the civil war in Sri Lanka, stability in Bangladesh and reconstructing Afghanistan; Terrorist’s attacks to Indian and the US attacking to Afghanistan make them closer and closer; and although India didn’t respond to all US invitation to help her in Iraq Invasion that India never send any force to Iraq, but also criticized the US for this action; in the case of Afghanistan India support US presentation there and evaluated it in its strategic interest in south and central Asia. Some theory speak of the different in Indo-US relation before  and after CW, they say during CW third party factor like Pakistan had heavy shadow on the two countries relationship but in post-CW time Indo-US bilateral  relation has less influenced by other factors like that. But in real evaluation of the US policy during the two paradigms is show that the US just follow its goal by its partners. During CW they follow controlling USSR by using Pakistan capacity and now the US is seeking its policy toward China by using India’s capacity. “In recent years, the United States has begun to revise its stance toward India in response to the emergence of China as a major Asian power and its rising influence in South Asia [J]” so even now third factor in US policies in south Asia is the same as CW time with this difference that at CW time it just were with on side but now the US play with all side and at the same time they are engaging with Pakistan and India and China together.

 September the 11 changed the US policy and approach toward the most world trend and its relation dynamics; and India was one of them. The two countries decide to bring military cooperation like joint military exercise and other mutual cooperation in this regard to deeper level. Bilateral and multilateral action that is going on in between India and US and its allies in Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal, Pacific Ocean… in maritime field and others kind of military activities in others levels are the result of this decision; But The US emphasizes on maritime security; at the time that India focuses on territorial defense [K].

On the side of Indo-US agreement on India nuclear issue; in July 2005, the two countries announced the most wide-ranging partnership in the history of their bilateral relations, covering the economy, energy security, democracy promotion, defense cooperation, and high technology and space cooperation. The most controversial aspect of the agreement was Bush's commitment to "work with friends and allies to adjust international regimes to enable full civil nuclear energy cooperation and trade with India [L]." the country that never sign the NPT and had nuclear tests.

 Opening new era of relation and 21^th century’s situation bring some optimism about the two countries relation. Welcoming Eastern religion and philosophy by the materialistic US people approaches; and the expansion of Buddhism and Hinduism there; and also growing economical as well as cultural, educational, military relation between them and also revised US way of looking to the Asian problem… show that India and the US step to new era of cooperation.

 Large-rising number of Indian who is living in US; who are activated by Indian Government to make a big lobby like Irish Catholic or Jew lobbies in US is a capacity that India can use to follow its goals. The Indo-US relation development shows a horizon that characterized it as strategic event. It has many-sided and extends well beyond traditional inter-governmental interaction. Three different components of this relationship, people-to-people ties, business-to-business relations and government-to-government interaction, have had independent course in the past, but may now be converging. At this time private sector also was ready to play its roles. Despite of ups and downs in political situation between two countries People to people relation were boosted and India post-Independent era show large scale of Indian who emigrate to US. This was US policy toward India that in the absent of inter-governmental relation people to people side stay activate and so large number of Indian people allowed to be in US in CW era and it boosted now even.

US-India relation expansion followed by US allies to expand their relation with India “US acceptance of India as a responsible player in the region implies that Australia needs to expand its strategic outlook to include India and the Eastern Indian Ocean region” [M].

 Apart from all India-US problems, bilateral relationship was improving during last two decade and through their leaders’ trips to each country they have considerable steps to closeness, and on the top was the George W. Bush’s trip to India in 2005 they signed a significant agreement in nuclear field that was a new start in their relationship and till now they are engaging to implement this treaty. Hard duty that the two sides were accepted to do, make some obstacles to fulfill the job by the two sides till now. So in some field like on going restrictions on imports of dual-use technology from the US, a lack of progress on liberalizing foreign direct investment in the Indian retail sector, and the imposition of investment  caps in the Indian banking and insurance sectors and include Importing high-Tec to India are the field that have problem till now. Indo-US expansion made India as strategic partner right now for US not as ally. A "Strategic Dialogue" was established in July 2009 during the visit of US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton to India with the objective of strengthening bilateral cooperation across diverse sectors. The first round of the Strategic Dialogue was held in Washington in June 2010, followed by the second round in New Delhi in July 2011 [N]. Major areas of cooperation:

a)    Trade and Economic Relations

b)    Bilateral Investments

c)     Clean Energy and Climate Change Initiative

d)    Counter-terrorism Cooperation

e)    Defence Cooperation

f)      Civil Nuclear Initiative

g)    Space Cooperation

h)    Education sector

i)      Cooperation in Science & Technology

j)      Cooperation in the Health Sector

k)     Cultural cooperation

l)      Indian Press

m)  People-to-people ties

Conclusion:

Indo-US relation from the last decade of 20^th century till now, entered in new paradigm that its character was improving and most of the events in both side always help them to became closer but the problem is, that US policy in Asia has been changed during this two decade and the Indian weight were different in the different US government that come during these two last decades.

References:

A)   Jawaharlal Nehru, "Report to the all-India congress committee on the international congress against imperialism held at Brussels in February 1927," in Bimla Prasad, The Origins of Indian Foreign Policy: The Indian National Congress and World Affairs, 1885- 1947 (Mumbai: Bookland, 1960), appendix I, 265

B)    Manmohan Singh, "Address to the joint session of the United States congress," Washington, DC, 19 July 2005," reproduced in Seminar 560, April 2006.

C)    Article “India–US Relations in a Changing Strategic Environment” available in internet address,  http://www.aph.gov.au/library/

D)   "FDI in India statistics," Ministry of Commerce and Industry, industrial policy and promotion, government of India, www.dipplnic.in.

E)    -  “India-U.S.Relations”   byPeter R. Blood (Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division)  Updated March 8, 2002 http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/9052.pdf

f)    “India-U.S. Security Relations: Current Engagement” – by K. Alan Kronstadt (Specialist in South Asian Affairs) and Sonia Pinto (Research Associate) - November 13, 2012 - Congressional Research Service.

G)   Andrew Shapiro, assistant secretary of state for political-military affairs- WASHINGTON | Fri Apr 19, 2013 4:48am IST - WASHINGTON (Reuters) -      http://in.reuters.com/article/2013/04/18/usa-india-weapons-idINDEE93H0F220130418

H)   “India-U.S. Security Relations: Current Engagement” – by K. Alan Kronstadt (Specialist in South Asian Affairs) and Sonia Pinto (Research Associate) - November 13, 2012 - Congressional Research Service.

I)      “India-U.S. Security Relations: Current Engagement” – by K. Alan Kronstadt (Specialist in South Asian Affairs) and Sonia Pinto (Research Associate) - November 13, 2012 - Congressional Research Service.

J)     U.S.-India Initiative Series - The Strategic Implications of Indo-U.S. Private-Sector Ties - By Rajiv Kumar (the Director general of the Federation  of Indian Chambers of Commerce and industry)

K)    India-US Relation: Progress Amidst limited Convergence – published in CSS Analysis in Security Policy - No. 117 • July 2012

L)     "Joint statement between President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh," White House, 18 July 2005.

M) Article “India–US Relations in a Changing Strategic Environment” available in internet address,  http://www.aph.gov.au/library/

N)   “India - United States of America Relations” - March 2۰01

Course : “India foreign Policy”

 by:   Dr. Mandana Tishehyar    

Provider: Seyed Mostafa Mostafavi

 MA student in subcontinent studies

 Faculty of world studies

 University of Tehran

 Iran

 1392/8/7

 + نوشته شده در شنبه یازدهم آبان ۱۳۹۲ ساعت 19:51 شماره پست: 346

In the name of God

The Cold War (CW) paradigm started in 1947 and ended in 1991. So India at its independent’s year in 1947, faced with the CW paradigm immediately. Before that, when the Western and the Eastern blocs were engaged with a mutual struggle to defeating the Nazi regime in EU territories, the Indian revolutionary forces were combating on the United Kingdom colonizing over their homeland. The UK was one of the key icons in the Western bloc at that time; so as Jawaharlal Nehru mentioned in his book An Autobiography [A], the Indian revolutionary movement at that time were satisfied with the Germany’s victory over their colonizers; like British. Although Indian had no Pro-Nazism felling; but they were happy to see the defeating of their enemies in an Inter-Europeans fighting.

 By the World War II (WWII), British was a superpower in the world and so many countries like India were under the UK control, these kinds of countries were ruling by a colonial system that arranged and managed by London; but as result of WWII, the British empire collapsed and the UK was downgraded to a second world-power level and it replaced by the USA after that. So although Indian was never faced with remarkable problem from the US side till that time, but they were very suspicious about the western bloc in general. Jawaharlal Nehru as first Prime Minister of India who were known as one of well-known world on-going trend at the time (independent era) who write a book in this regard, also in 1927 when he was reporting to the National Congress just 20 years before India Independent. Described The US as the great problem of India in near future:

  “[The] great problem of the near future will be American imperialism, even more than British imperialism [B]”

He may perhaps could predict out-side India’s problem in near future but he didn’t aware of his party’s leaders in India National Congress who will prepared red carpet for this American Imperialism in 1990s to come to India and will stay solder to solder with them to make new world!! Look at Dr Manmohan Singh expression in Washington in 2006 when he said:

  “India is today embarked on a journey inspired by many dreams. We welcome having America by our side. There is much we can accomplish together [C].”

But Indian leader who were ruling India after independent and during CW take distance of the Western bloc as well as the Eastern bloc, and they want to choose Non-Aligned policy toward the two blocs. Nehru chose a middle path, which subsequently came to be known as non-alignment. As early as 1947, in a note to India's Ambassador designate to China, K. P. S. Menon, he wrote:

“Our general policy is to avoid entanglement in power politics and not join any group of powers as against any other group. The two leading groups today are the Russian bloc and the Anglo-American bloc. We must be friendly to both and yet not join either. Both America and Russia are extraordinarily suspicious of each other as well as of other countries. This makes our path difficult and we may well be suspected by each of learning towards the other. This cannot be helped. … The Soviet Union, being our neighbor, we shall inevitably develop close relations with it. We cannot afford to antagonize Russia merely because we think that this may irritate someone else. Nor indeed can we antagonize the USA. [D]”

 Indian took distance of the Western because of:

A)   The UK as long-colonizer of India was one of the existed core element in the Western bloc.

B)     Some of the main Indian revolutionary leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Gandhi… were UK-Educated persons and raised with the UK misunderstanding about Americans;

C)     The US also had no history of relation with ancient India

D)    During US Independent war also some of the British member involved who became the runner of the later the East Indian Company so as result there had no suitable relation between the East India Company and later British Raj and Independent-US.

E)            After decolonizing also in some how this perspective generalized to the post colonial time and so as a result this lack of understanding were continue between them

F)         US more reasonable relation with other Asian civilization like China and Japan coparceners with India was not accepted by Indian.

G)        Some bad events that happened during colonial time for Indian in America cause a misunderstanding condition between the two countries after WWII also [E];

H)        Setting India aside from the US core policy in Asia by choosing Pakistan in the US doctrine to encounter the Soviet Union (USSR) as the country which had serious war with India over Jammu & Kashmir region became US core alley so India for building a strategic balance in its Asian rivals took closed to USSR.

I)            The causes of India rejecting to join any anti-Soviet coalition and the U.S. policy of seeking to achieve a strategic balance in South Asia and the latter ambition led the United States to extend large-scale economic and strategic assistance to Pakistan, in a sustained effort to develop it as a counterweight to India [F].

J)           Anti-Imperialism felling among Indian leader in 1950s also made the two sides far away from being together. 

K)          The US Black & White positioning toward the others, was another factor that distanced them from the countries like India during CW and Iran now; the world players which want to exist independent; as some US policy-makers like Secretary of State John Foster Dulles declared “They who are not with us are against us” [F] or recently the US president George.W.Bush divided the world “with us or Against us” [] also that there was no middle in between.  

L)          And finally India by choosing socialism as her internal economy and politic system; attracted by the Eastern blocs

M)       The USSR capturing central Asian countries became India’s neighbor in the north so India got closed to USSR during the CW era.

 Although there was not an inimical situation between India and the USA; but they had no friendly relation also. India at that time tried to follow a middle way policy between the two blocs; key role of India in initiating the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), which formed in early 1961s and at the same time closed and with an eye on the USSR policy in international battlefield was the character of India foreign policy. Hence it was some of the reasons that they take distance of the western bloc after the WWII.

Jawaharlal Nehru as a first Prime Minister and the architect of India's post-independence foreign policy ruled India within 1947 till 1964 and lead India in socialist bloc. He believes that socialism could help Indian to pass transitional period from a looted nation by colonizers with destroyed economy and disordered culture after near 3 centuries being under western invaders ruling. Although Indian had seen pressure of the escaped-US from colonial system’s president Franklin D. Roosevelt to giving independent to countries like India on the UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill in 1940s to give independent to India also; but emerging US as super power in middle 20^th was not welcomed by India. Indian during CW had been using the USSR capacity in UNSC for encountering the US-backed Pakistani movement in international atmosphere. India and US in so many international main event like the Korean War and China membership in UNSC and the US Pro-Israeli positioning were opposite United State of America; but US humanitarian aid to India was considerable; for example during 1950 till 1965 50% of foreign aid belong to US. Although US had lost the best opportunity during 1962 Indo-Sino war, when India ask military assistant from the West and she didn’t received appropriate help; but Indo-US economic relation is also backed to 1960s and on the shadow of ups and downs in intergovernmental relation, was start and continue till now. At the time of separation of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971 the Indo-US relation came to lowest point and by its first nuclear test 1974 some sanctions imposed to India by US; The Mikhail Gorbachev coming to power in USSR and his changes and reform in the Soviet policies; led India to improve her relation with US during President Reagan (1980-8) and this trend started and it continue in Bush presidency (1988-92) and this time was the end of CW and there was no Soviet Union more and India even provided some logistic help to US military during the first Persian Gulf war in 1990; on the other hand based on this situation India’s reform in his economic regulation started and open a new era of cooperation between India and US; so India by adopting liberalizing process on the eve of collapsing the USSR is going to open her doors to the western capitals.

The Cold War era had strong effect on the South Asia strategic balance and the two superpower rivalry made Pakistan on the core position in US-policy and India also with the help of USSR renewed her military ability and both were armed with the nuclear bombs ability. The end of the Cold War caused a major shift in world politics and fundamentally restructured a number of relationships around the world, the India-US one being no exception.

Conclusion:

Indo-US division in somehow was the legacy of long centuries British colonizing; The UK membership in the West bloc as one of the important members after WWII and also American approach toward India and Pakistan during the CW. presentation of socialism in Nehru policy to transmit India from pre-colonial to post-colonial era, was another factor of Indo-US separation. About half century long CW started with anti-capitalism by Nehru and ended with being closeness to US by Manmohan Singh as architecture of new India that identifies India close to West. During the cold war also the US play with India and keep it in its process the lead it to open its market to capitalistic bloc.     

References:

A)            An Autobiography was written by Nehru during spending his time in colonizer’s jail and he described independent struggle process.

B)            Jawaharlal Nehru, "Report to the all-India congress committee on the international congress against imperialism held at Brussels in February 1927," in Bimla Prasad, The Origins of Indian Foreign Policy: The Indian National Congress and World Affairs, 1885- 1947 (Mumbai: Bookland, 1960), appendix I, 265

C)            Manmohan Singh, "Address to the joint session of the United States congress," Washington, DC, 19 July 2005," reproduced in Seminar 560, April 2006.

D)            India-US Relations in a Changing Strategic Environment - Dr Ravi Tomar - Research Paper no.20 2001-2002-http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp0102/02RP20

E)             Article “INDO-AMERICAN RELATIONS IN A NEW LIGHT” Dr. Madan Lal Goel - University of West Florida- Delivered at the Annual Meeting of the Indian Association of American Studies, 1999.  Revised

F)             U.S.-India Initiative Series - The Strategic Implications of Indo-U.S. Private-Sector Ties - By Rajiv Kumar (the

G)            Director general of the Federation  of Indian Chambers of Commerce and industry)

H)            Quoted in Angadipuram Appadorai and M.S. Rajan, India's Foreign Policy and Relations (New Delhi: South Asian Publishers, 1985), 216.

Seyed Mostafa Mostafavi

M.A Student in The Subcontinent Studies

Faculty of world Studies

 University of Tehran

 For the subject “Indian Foreign Policy”

 by Dr. Mandana Tishehyar

+ نوشته شده در سه شنبه هفتم آبان ۱۳۹۲ ساعت 13:11 شماره پست: 343

 Today we talk about one of your historical site; the Mohenjo-Daro, a city-state that belongs to more than 4 thousand years back. And our Professor inform us that among all Build things there; there was no single gun… and straight Mohenjo-Daro’s streets also show that your ancestors don’t face any threat and felled very safe… and had been lived there peacefully for long time and handed over a flourished civilization to the humanity; and you, as Civilized-Muslim nation should be live in peace and prosper way also, same as your fathers at that time.  

 So please have a look to your fathers’ history that lived in peace, thousand years ago and even they didn’t think or fell violent. But I don’t know why nowadays we should hear a lot of killing and massacres in all corners of your civilized people’s country; In Quetta or in Karachi or in Lahore or any part of Pakistan’s territories. Nowadays you are killing your brothers because they don’t think exactly same as you?!!. Please return to your history and forgot that ص رحمته للعالمین is your prophet. Your country is fund on Islamic characters; but I want to say please forgot it, and just return to your historical culture; non-violate lifestyle. Why a Shia Muslim should be killed?!! Because he/she don’t think like you?!!...Nobody should be killed. We (as Muslims) have to return to our logical way of thinking and practicing and living. Please rethink and review your mind.

This kind of actions maybe come from or routed outside of your country; please reject them. Maybe the fans of such an actions, come from the culture that before Prophet Mohammad (Peace be upon him) was existed in Hejaz; the people who had killed their innocent daughters, is coming back in 21th century and do the same cruelly again.  Who knows maybe they want to return us (Muslims) back to that cruel society and culture; before Islam?!!

Why the name of Pakistan should be equal to terrorism (because of such a actions). Please rethink; and bring a change; and rewash your face.

I apologias of such a frankly spoke out. The Pakistani’s brothers are free of such these actions and all of them imported from outside and imposed to them.

مرا بهایی اور بهن - آپ کهان جا راها هن؟!!؟

۱۳ - اکتبر - ۲۰۱۳  

Seyed Mostafa Mostafavi

MA student in the Subcontinent studies

University of Tehran 

  + نوشته شده در یکشنبه بیست و یکم مهر ۱۳۹۲ ساعت 14:35 شماره پست: 332

IN The Name of WHOM,

That creates us in different Tribes, Races… just to know each other better

Preface:

Aryan means noble, an English language loanword come from the Sanskrit ārya and Persian Airyana. Today the terms like Indo-Iranian and Indo-European, and Aryan or Indo-Aryan Indicate to the people who speak with same route languages. Aryans were the people who lived about 2000 BCE in their homelands in the north borders of “Great Persia” in the regain that named Transoxiana; a territory around the Caspian sea. They called in the Zoroastrian holy book Avesta as Airyana Vaeja and Arya Varta in the Hindu holy book Vedas [1]. The Aryan flourished when they migrate to new lands, their big-historical migration to the south-lands and building at least two great and enormous civilizations in Iran and India are the indicator of it.

Prosperous socio-culture, advanced iron weaponized armies, plus facilities that they had at that time, were the great reason of their domination over aboriginal people in Iran and India, the two major civilized territories that they reached to them at the beginning of their journey. The Aryan were aware of their ability and richness, so they classified himself as top and aboriginal as lower classes in social fixed ranks. They affected world culture and human history for long time and even now; therefore in this article we will have a look to this civilization-builder people.

Aryan’s main tribe’s name and their homelands:

The Aryan people, as it mentioned in Vendidad (the Zoroastrian text), were sixteen tribes who lived in different places; listed in the chart below:

Aryan’s reason to migration:

Based on the Zoroastrian Avesta and the Hindu Vedas and other texts in this regard, the Aryans migrated to out of their homeland, because of the Aryans increased in size for the following reasons:

Ø An increase in population during the Jamshidi era

Ø  Climate changes, so they face harsh winters and short summers.

Ø Trading with neighboring and settlement of significant populations in these lands.

Ø Establishment of kingdoms through settlement.

Ø Inter-Aryan wars. The schism (division) between the deva and Mazda worshippers cf. reign of King Vishtasp and life of Zarathushtra.

Ø Establishment of the Persian Empire that included the original federation of kingdoms as well as additional lands.

New lands for Aryan, in the Vedas:

The Hindu Vedas state that the land gain by Yama (King Jamshid as in Avesta) became the homeland of the Hindus. The Hindu Rig and Atharva Vedas state:

“Worship with oblation Yama the King, son of Vivasvat, the assembler of people, who departed from the deep to the heights, and explored the road for many. Yama was the first who found for us the route. This home is not to be taken from us. Those who are now born, (go) by their own routes to the place where unto our ancient forefathers emigrated. (Atharva Veda xviii.1.49 & Rig Veda x.14.1)”...they cross by fords the mighty streams which the virtuous offerers of sacrifice pass (Atharva Veda xviii.4.7)”

Aryan came from left or right side of the Caspian Sea:

There are different theories about the Aryan homeland but most of them show the Aryan homeland were somewhere around Caspian Sea on the left or right side. Some theories say they lived in Transoxiana and some theories say they came from the Caucuses region; both are locate around the Caspian Sea.

 In about 1500 BCE, a big group of the Aryans passed through the Khyber Pass into the Indus valley. They came from the region north of the Black & Caspian seas called Eurasia (where Europe ends & Asia begins).  The Aryans were nomadic pastoralists, herding cattle & sheep and their use of the horse allowed them to migrate into the Indian subcontinent. The Aryans settled along the Ganges River alongside the natives in India, called the Dravidians.

The Aryans soon began to dominate the Indus and then Gangetic Plain; and aboriginal people who know as Dravidians, and developed their own government, in the cities of the Indus and then Gangetic Plain. A prince (rajah) ruled each city as an independent kingdom. The Rajah acted as a military leader, chief priest, lawmaker and judge. By 1000 BCE, 16 separate Aryan kingdoms emerged on the Indian subcontinent. For hundreds of years, the Aryan kingdoms enjoyed peace & independence. The Aryan’s religion was written in books called the Veda so there are so many holy books that Rigveda, Yajorveda, Atharvaveda, Samaveda… a collection of religious rituals and hymns. They were written in Sanskrit, their religious language.  The word “Veda” means “knowledge” or “wisdom” in Sanskrit. Only 4 major collections of the Vedas survive -the greatest of the Vedas is the Rig Veda, which contains 1028 hymns of praise. The Vedas are so important to the history of India that, the period from 1500 - 1000 BCE call as the Vedic Age. Aryans believed in one supreme God and had lesser gods & goddesses that were a part of this supreme god, each representing a different force of nature.  Aryans believed that after death, the Supreme God either thrust a soul into a dark pit of punishment or raised it into a heaven filled w/joy.  Through proper actions & repeated rituals, a soul could reach this heaven.  No temples existed. Only priests who knew the complicated rituals & could read Sanskrit could actually perform the rituals.

Aryan Social and Economical Classification:  

Class divisions began to form after the Aryan migration.  Several physical and social differences existed between the Aryans and the native Indians (Dravidians) that they ruled over.  The Aryans were light skinned while the Dravidians were dark skinned.  The Aryans were in the minority but believed in maintaining a separate identity and therefore passed laws prohibiting marriages between Aryans and the Dravidians.   The most important people in Aryan society were the religious priests, called Brahmins or Brahmans.

Aryan Social and Economical changes: 

When the Aryans migrated to the Indus and then Gangetic Plain, they abandoned their nomadic ways and herding and instead embraced farming and a settled lifestyle.  They raised barley as their main crop.  Each village in each kingdom divided its land among its families, but the whole village shared the responsibility for irrigation.  Land could not be sold to outsiders and could be passed on only to male heirs. 

The Law Book of Manu is an Aryan document describing proper moral and family behavior. Marriage took place by kidnapping, by purchase, or by mutual consent.  A woman considered it a great compliment to be stolen. To be bought and paid for was more flattering than to be married by consent.  Men could marry more than one woman and owned their wives and children. Aryans also believed that women should be subordinate to their fathers, husbands, and even their sons. The most important duties of a woman were to care for the home and produce sons who would help the father.  Fathers also expected their sons go to battle to bring honor to their families and to perform the correct rituals as their fathers’ funerals. 

Her father protects (her) in childhood, her husband protects (her) in youth and her sons protect (her) in old age; a woman is never fit for independence.

The Indus and the Ganga, two main ancient civilizations in India:

Subcontinent’s main’s door is open from the Northwest of its border to Great Persian lands, so every invader who wanted to enter India should pass Iran lands to enter there; and the Aryan also did it the same; and they entered India from the Sind or Indus the territories; right now called Pakistan. So Aryans located in the Indus Valley and then separated in the North Ganga River plain, in all around north of India and then vast their domination in the south of this region. The Ganges , or In Hindi Ganga, is a river of India and Bangladesh with 2,525 km long, it rises from the western Himalayas in India, and enter into Bangladesh, then attend to the Bay of Bengal. It is the second largest river in the World. The Ganges plain is the most heavily populated, with over 400 million people. The Ganges is the most holy river to Hindus. It is worshipped as the goddess Ganga in India .It has also been important historically: many former provincial or imperial capitals such as Patliputra, Kannauj, Kara, Kashi, Allahabad, Murshidabad, Munger, Baharampur, Kampilya and Kolkata, have been located on its banks.

The Indus River is starts through western Tibet and northern India, the Indian Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, then Gilgit and Baltistan and then Pakistan and end into the Oman Sea near the port city of Karachi in the Sindh province. Its total length is 3,180 km so the twenty-first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow. Indus riches by waters near The Zanskar in Ladakh, then Chenab which itself has four major tributaries, namely, the Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej. The Shyok, the Gilgit, the Kabul, the Gomal and the Kurram are added to it. Some water is beginning in a mountain in Nepal and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayas. The Indus forms the delta of Pakistan; the Rig veda name it Sapta Sindhu and the Iranian Zend Avesta as Hapta Hindu (both terms meaning "seven rivers"). The river has been a source of wonder since the Classical Period, with King Darius of Persia sending Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river as early as 510 BC.

Aryan did not come from outside:

Some scholars believe that Aryan people didn’t come from outside of region [3] and they reject “South-North People divided theory” as Aryan-Dravidian considers two unrelated race. For instance Mr. Aurobindo (1872-1950), a scholar of Latin and Greek as well as of Sanskrit, studies shows the original connection between the Sanskrit and Tamil languages– See The Secret of the Veda, V 10, the Centenary Edition, p 36, 46.  Sri Aurobindo also noted that a large part of the vocabulary of the South Indian languages (Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam) is common with Sanskrit.

 An Aryan invasion of India from the outside around 1,500 B. C. did not take place. People of North and South India have lived together in peace as two branches of one family since antiquity.  People who talk of an Aryan occupation of India repeat back the 19th century British viewpoint and do disservice to the cause of unity of India.

 Advances in genetics have made it possible to trace ancient migrations. It is now generally accepted that modern man arose in Africa about 200,000 years ago and from there spread first into India and Southeast Asia by coastal migration that probably included some boat crossings. There are several estimates of the time when this spread into India took place. According to the geneticist Stephen Oppenheimer, settlements in India appear about 90,000 years ago. From India there were later northeastern and northwestern migrations into Eurasia and the Far East.

A research for “Iranian legacy in India” Subject

By: Dr Aziz Mehdi

 Researcher: Seyed Mostafa Mostafavi a M.A Student in Indian subcontinent studies

 World Studies Faculty – University of Tehran

Date: 7- October - 2013

Sources:

1-   http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/aryans/airyanavaeja.htm

2-   http://bhoffert.faculty.noctrl.edu/REL255/001.ReligiousFoundations.html

3-   “THE MYTH OF ARYAN INVASIONS OF INDIA” by Dr. MADAN  LAL GOEL - UNIVERSITY OF WEST FLORIDA -www.uwf.edu/lgoel

 + نوشته شده در شنبه بیستم مهر ۱۳۹۲ ساعت 10:29 شماره پست: 331

In the Name of the Creator of Mothers

Women situation in Hindu society is so disastrous, in time, some of Indian families get aware of a child-girl pregnancy they try to abort it (1), because they know that based on Hindu cultural rules, they will face with a lot of social and financial problems such as high-cost dowry (2) and so on in future. Hence Indian families mostly prefer to have a male sex than a female one. The survivors and born child-girls, in future will impose high-cost dowry to her family to get marry. The issue to be focused on this article is  bad-luck girls in Hindu culture who by losing their husbands, will face a chain  of new problems afterwards; they cannot have a new chance to get married again culturally (not legally) ,for instance. (3) Because based on Hindu culture it is forbidden for a Hindu widow to start and taste new life with a new man, the right that other women in the world have it mostly. In other cultures like Iranian or the Middle East, if a women feels no satisfaction with her husband and reach to this point that continuation is impossible for her( or his also), they can legally get divorce and try another chance.

 Another Indian girl’s problem backs to the ancient customs, girls used to get married at a very early age, (4) by this kind of marriage, little girls should be separated from their family and join to a new one that is not so familiar and close to them and they had to live with their in-laws in other place maybe long distance from their birth place. This occurs while they weren`t ready to live separate of their parents. And after marriage, if they faced any problem with her-in-laws or husbands, she would have no one to talk or seek support from. Unreachably of parents and relatives for giving help to little girls would make worse the damages they faced. Arrange marriage as an on-going tradition which brings other problems for them, its devil face will  be shown  when the little girl finds her husband intolerable, but at this time also there is no choice for her and she should live besides an unlovable man till the life ends  and culturally it is not evaluative  and a moral act to get divorce. (5)

Hindu culture as a male-dominance society, (6) during a marriage’ negotiation also don’t pay attention enough to the girl side’s needs and considers them as an object that based on a contract exchanged among two families, and marriage is not considered a contract between a couple, that reached together during marriage process. (7)

Female’s inferiority in an Indian male-dominated society downgrade half of an Indian society, for example, the people who in Vedic time were enjoyed equal right with men, to have properties.(8) But during the time they changed to an inferior against superiority of males.

Remarry also was a right which was recognized for Hindu’ widows in Vedic period; (9) this right too is taken by the time from women society during centuries and now based on new Hindu culture the widows could not get married again and they should wait to die after their husband death. Although we can see some progresses in Hindu culture in contemporary reforms, by putting Sati (सती) away, a custom that has caused for centuries death of Hindu widows, the people who would throw themselves on their husbands' funeral pyres, to reflect the view of that, they were of little social worth without their protector and breadwinner; a radical Hindu cultural rule that based on an atmosphere for widows   constructed that they burnt themselves side of their husband dead body. Although practice sati, has been outlawed, but widows are still traditionally considered inauspicious and the Hindu widows situation is not backed in normal position till now and they are suffering big problems.

At the absent of Sati, now social-cultural compulsory lead widows to leave their society and take shelter somewhere else. for instance , Vrindavan (10) is a city in central India, that is known as a holy town for Widows. Some census reported that, nearly 15,000 widows have taken a roof over their heads in this city. Vrindavan is where, the Hindu god, Krishna is said to have grown up there. Many widows come to this city that have 4,000 Hindu temples, to escape from abuse of others in their home town, or banished by their husbands' families so they won't receive property. Some of these widows also were accused as a cause of their husbands' deaths and so their-in-laws put them under more pressure. So they wish death and escape from such situation and suicide based on Sati, is thought to be better than living likewise.

This is an imposed situation by an old Hindu law, that suggests to widows to reach enlightenment, they should reject luxuries and showy clothes, and should pray, eat a simple vegetarian diet and devote themselves to their husband's memory. (11)

But some social changes show a growing number of widows, who remarry especially in urban areas. Another positive movement is a low that passed by Indian government that all widows over 60 year olds are eligible for receiving a $16 monthly government pension, and food allowance, the capacity that is provided by legal system to use it in favorer of power this backless people, but up to 80% of illiterate widows cannot reach to it during Indian long troublous bureaucratic system. So the charity which has become available by temples and some social activist is the hope for such illiterate widows. Another sources of living fund for this widow is the money who receive from begging.

 Regard to Hindu widows, we have face with two kinds of them; the widows who backed by their sons or families and the widows who do not receive any help from their families, So the latter as backless women face with so many problems. Recently Indian Women’ movement regard to improvement of their situation brought some important results; as the act that passed by Lok Sabha (India’ lower house) for protecting women recently. (12)

On the other side you can see some Hindu who because of such cultural laws changed their religion, like Dr.Behim.Rao Ambedkar who converts to Buddhism (13) or the recent case that Miss Kumari Mayawati (born 15 January 1956 in New Delhi) whose Nick Name is Bahenji (Respected Sister) as leader of BSP (Bahujan Samaj Party) is converted to Buddhism also, (14) etc.

Apart from unsuccessful widows in India who are suffering problems, some of them like Miss Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (1917–1984) who rule India two times as Prime Minister and managed her problems perfectly and control her rivals powerfully. Or Miss Sonya Gandhi as widow of former Prime Minister of India, Mr. Rajiv Gandhi, is one of the world powerful women who announced by Forbes Magazine as one of the 100 Most Powerful Women in the world. But most of Indian widows are not in the position of Miss Sonya Gandhi or her mother-in-law, Miss Indira, to place as India National Congress party (INC) leaders and  mobilizing their ability to lead a vast country like India. Most of them are the ordinary people who should live with their-in-law or with their sons or families. If their sons help them they can live as mother among their grandchildren and on the other hand they should return to their families and live with them, otherwise they will find no shelter and no support and should take shelter in some temples; the city like Vrindavan is an example for it.

The first chose for a Hindu’s widow is living with their son’s family; because India is a male-dominance society and their sons can provide a good situation for them in their house, but they can find such facility in their daughter’s house rarely, and it is imaginable that their daughters may also have the same position as inferior in their husband house.

Cultural reforms and governmental legal activity is going to control this situation and in urban area is going to less this problem, but in rural area still this social problem shows itself more strongly than urban area.

 The women as the most effect taker and vulnerable in any social - political change or a natural disaster, should be at the core of society’ attention; to less their problem. Mothers who bring us up and give use a safe shelter when we are at a weakness, etc; should keep safe when they need our help, so Hindu society have to solve widow’s problems, when they face with large number of troubles; the difficulties that traditionally imposed to widow’s community.

Hindu society should review its approach to innocent widows who lost their breadwinners. They all are a part of women society with just a small difference; they have just lost their husbands.

References:

1-       www.english-online.at/news.../abortion-of-girls-on-the-rise-in-india.

2-       www.abcnews.go.com › Health

3-       http://lawcommissionofindia.nic.in/51-100/Report81.pdf

4-       http://bookofsex.com/go/page/bookofsex.com_cover_v2?pid=g1049942.sub0newbing

5-       http://www.indiaparenting.com/relationships/article.cgi?art_id=107

6-       ttp://hsc.csu.edu.au/society_culture/belief_systems/focus_studies/2499/BSFocus_Hinduism.html#power

7-       www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_marriage.asp

8-       http://www.hinduwisdom.info/Women_in_Hinduism.htm

9-       http://creative.sulekha.com/rig-veda-position-of-women-part-two_306106_blog

10-    http://www.sikhchic.com/current_events/widows_hinduisms_other_untouchables

11-    www.theatlanticcities.com/neighborhoods/2013/03/...hindu-widow.../499...

12-    www.guardian.co.uk › World news › India

13-    http://anckarnataka.page.tl/Breif-History-Of-Dr-.-B-.-R-Ambedkar-.-.htm

14-    http://kafila.org/2012/03/07/why-mayawatis-defeat-is-the-bsps-victory/

Course:

Social Structure of India
by: Dr. Heshmat Sadat Moinifar

Occasional paper on a film Review

By:  Seyed Mostafa Mostafavi

M.A Student in Indian Studies

Faculty of world studies - University of Tehran

1392/خرداد/دوم

+ نوشته شده در چهارشنبه هشتم خرداد ۱۳۹۲ ساعت 12:54 شماره پست: 292

In the Name of GOD

The untouchable as a society who Mahatma Gandhi (the leader of “India Independent Movement) named them “Harijans” (God’s Children). The people, who are located out skirt of the caste (Jati) pyramid in Indian socio-cultural system. This article will have a look to this subject. The people, who are considering as untouchables religiously, and based on the caste ruling system, must be, avoid them of not affecting of their impurity and pollution. Nowadays they have known mostly as “Dalit” or “scheduled backwards” that it identifies and separated from the main four “Aryans” classification Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Cast system as a strong Identity-giver, framework or principles, classify people by race and blood and it determines, what kind of job every member of Hindu society can occupy and in which filed each person can work. In this categorized society, a person would be born and live there and ultimately will die within the caste which is belonging to it.

 The history of India shows the opposes movements against same unjust Hindu rules, such as Buddhism or Jainism reforms, and also enlighten among Hindu society like Upanishad, Mahabharata, etc but they didn’t have full success in this matter and even contemporary social reformist icons like Mahatma Gandhi and Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (as a Dalit leader), and so on, before Independent start their oppositeness against the discrimination toward this society and they made it illegal under legislation passed during British rule. The new constitution of independent India in 1950 also outlawed this old traditional practicing, especially under the article number 17 and other articles like 15(1), 15(2), 16(2), 23, 29 (2). The Constitution abolishes the discrimination on the basis of cast (1), but despite of this illegalness, basically the Social discrimination is going on among Indian society and it is even performs between Harijans as a most affected victims of this custom, as well as other social classes. For instance Sub-castes amongst Harijans, such as the dhobi and nai should not interact with lower one Bhangis, who were explain as "out-castes” among Harijans. The Untouchables’ phenomena as a cruel imposed fixed believe is based and found on the minds sets of Indian, during long history of religion and culture of Hinduism. Hindu culture considers inferiority and superiority of different castes as a God-given Item for mankind. So as it is clear, psychologically untouchably believe remains during the time, even now it is the accepted rule and it is practicing among its victims also, so long social reformists struggle to remove the Caste system won’t be successful till now perfectly. Especially in rural context it still has fans. Dr. Ambedkar in 1933 referred to this subject as below:

“The Out-caste is a bye-product of the Caste system. There will be outcastes as long as there are castes. Nothing can emancipate the Out-caste except the destruction of the Caste system. Nothing can help to save Hindus and ensure their survival in the coming struggle except the purging of the Hindu Faith of this odious and vicious dogma” (2),

The Indian government officially recognizes historical discrimination on its lowest castes like Shudra and Untouchables, as they named them Scheduled Castes. The society that concludes near 3000 different untouchable groups that officially recorded as “Other Backward Classes (OBC)” and categories by “The Mandal Commission”, and unofficially they estimates around 52% of the Indian population, at the same time the National Sample Survey announced them 32% (3). According to the 1991 official census, there were 138 million Scheduled Caste members in this society, just about 16 % of the total population.

The Indian low caste presence in political filed as well as Indian jobs, are showing improvement, as it increased from 1.18 % of all jobs in 1959 to 10.12 % of all jobs in 1995. The attendance of Dalit’s icons in high political ranks and judiciary jobs show clearer horizon for this backward classes, such as :

- Indian president post, as K.R. Narayanan selected in 1997

 - Selection of K.G. Balakrishnan in 2007 as the Chief Justice of India

- Electing of Miss Meira Kumar as speaker of Indian parliament in 2009

- Another successful Dalit woman who occupied chief minister post of Uttar Pradesh as the most important state in India is Miss Mayawati, etc.

Long high caste-ruled India, has faced with undeclared confrontation between the long-ruling high caste groups in one side and its Scheduled Caste groups on the other side. This confrontation brose itself in political face and some main political movement with the goal of improving Dalit class, were started in the Uttar Pradesh state and Bihar state, the two hubs for Dalit residence in India. This movement was successful, especially in UP by the effort of two main Dalit-ruled political parties like BSP (Bahujan samaj party) and SP (Samajvadi party) gain some results. They are very active and based on their activities, previous state government established by BSP and now the state government in UP is in the hand of SP leader. This socio-political struggle faces with some important success in Bihar also. The UP-Bihar Dalit political movement is a good example for this society to make a change in their political presence at least in India’s political filed. Nowadays Dalit leaders by attracting Muslim minority vote banks in this state were achieved a big victory for low class of society and themselves and these two (Minorities and Dalits) can improve their position bilaterally and their join work toward removing long backwardness would be very affective.

It is a good example for Indian backwards that they can united on their backwardness and India’s political system have the capacity to tolerant such a diversion in its socio-political field. But beside all the progress that this society achieved, still the majority of them face with huge problems that are suffering them during the long history of India. Lack of land for providing enough food and also good place for living and doing agriculture is the main problem for them. Lack of education opportunity, bring lack of job opportunity for them, and impose very bad situation ultimately to low castes.

Shortage of job opportunity in rural areas; send large numbers of this community to the suburbs of Indian big cities, the huge immigrants whose aim is finding new jobs in service or industrial sectors there. Bombay as well as other big cities in India, is the best example in this regard, So many members of this community attracted by the commercial capital city of India and now Bombay hosts a large number of them, who are living in slums as shelter.

The Times of India (4) on Mar 22, 2013 reported that one out of six urban Indians are living in slums houses in around 4000 towns across the country, an amount of 17% of urban population. Based on NSSO (National Sample Survey Organization) in 2008-9 about 49000 slums are in India, the drinking water resources of 95% of them are tap or tube well. 57% of slums build on public lands, for instance 12% of them located along railway line. (5)

India 2011 (6)census report 63% of 4,041 constitutional towns face with Slums phenomena (2,543 India towns), about 108000 Slums with different size, as it is clear from 2009 to 2013 the number of slums doubled, and this census show that the largest number of Slums located in Maharashtra state. Greater Bombay (M) with 41.3% has the highest rate of slums, Kolkata (W.B) with 29.6% at the second level, Chennai (TN) with 28.5% at third level and Delhi with 14.6% fourth level hosts slums in India.

As it mentioned in India census, Bombay slums are the most populated place which build by very small house and narrow passages with lack of drinking water and healthy place for children, it does not prepare the needed items for their growth. It has not healthy and suitable atmosphere for mothers to bear their children.  It has no social and educational facilities to upward its resident socially, it just provides somewhere to sleep and pass the night and start a new frequent day for its residences. So India backwards society suffered very bad situation that it becomes the subject of so many novels and story that contain their problems. The people that in a small place cook, bath, sleep and live. Now Bombay as a rich city in India as well as other Indian big cities faces with two different side of the economic and social spectrum of poverty and richness. So within a small distance you can see radical side of these two together.

References:

1-       "Constitution of India" (http:/ / lawmin. nic. in/ olwing/ coi/ coi-english/ coi-indexenglish. htm). Ministry of Law, Government of India. . Retrieved 2012.

2-       B.R. Ambedkar (February, 1933). "A note to Gandhi" (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ title/ harijan/ oclc/ 1803552?referer=di& ht=edition). Harijan 3.

3-       Reply to SC daunting task for government (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 2006/ 20060611/ main2. htm), Tribune India.

4-       One of the famous newspaper in India

5-       www.indiafacts.in/pverty/slums-in-india/

6-       www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-Documents/On_Slums-2011Final.ppt

7-       http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/caste.html

Course:

Social Structure of India
by: Dr. Heshmat Sadat Moinifar

Occasional paper on a film Review

By:  Seyed Mostafa Mostafavi

M.A Student in Indian Studies

Faculty of world studies - University of Tehran

       1392/2/22

+ نوشته شده در چهارشنبه یکم خرداد ۱۳۹۲ ساعت 9:41 شماره پست: 289

“Few regions of the world are fraught with as many security questions as Asia. Within this region it is possible to study great power rivalries, irredentist conflicts, nuclear and ballistic missile proliferation, secessionist movements, ethno-religious conflicts, and inter-state wars. 1”

In the name of God the munificent the merciful

India’s direction in our transitional world is one of the subjects of future studies, because India’s movement and position in this regards is one of the world trend determinants. Therefore finding where India is going and how would be the world that India and some other will stand on its top, is a subject matter of world’s movement observes. With this approach this article by using Kuhn’s Paradigm theory and putting the 123 Indo-US Nuclear Deals as a turning point in India world policy, tries to show India direction in regards with policy. India’s flicker steps towards the U.S campus started by its economic reforms in 1990s and ultimately revolutionized to a Strategic Partnership point by the 2005 Bush-Singh nuclear deal. Despite of the on-going trend, what the future will become is the question that future should answer to it, this article tries the best to clear on-going India world policy.

Thomas Samuel Kuhn (1922-1996) by writing its masterpiece, The Structure of Scientific revolutions 2 in 1962, brought the notion of “Paradigm” as a scientific theory or useful method and tool in scientific analysis, to existence. Although Kuhn‘s theory was pointed towards natural sciences, but found itself more successful in social sciences and was most welcomed by the social scientists campus and subsequently made a revolution in analyzing social phenomenon and showed itself effective in “problem solving” of social fields. Kuhn’s method was the outcome of his supremacy over historical trends and theories of physics and the philosophy of science. This article finds Kuhn’s theory as a suitable tool to analyze the 2004-9 India National Congress (INC) ruling over India, period and signing of the Indo-American Nuclear Deal. So having a look at the structure of Kuhn’s theory will clear our way to answer questions such as: Is India really entered in liberalized paradigm? And Is India now in “normal science” era of liberalized paradigm? Especially this article will have a look on the nuclear deal between India and United State of America (U.S.A) as a core issue in this regard.

The paradigm takes meaning in the concept of “normal science” that “for a time provides model problems and solutions to a community” (Kuhn 1996 px). Normal science or conventional period of a science is placed against “Scientific Revolution”, the trend that every science experiences during their history and the development of any science will happen throughout the shifting of normal science and the scientific revolution. In Kuhn’s theory, paradigm is what the members of a scientific community share, seen by others as the sole idea responsible for the pursuit of a set of shared goals, for instance the training of their successors. Both normal science and revolutions are community-based activities.

Kuhn’s theory, is trying to have a clear explanation on how one dominant scientific theory at the exact era of its being, is entering in its normal science phase, to have “puzzle-solving” role or ability to find “acceptable solution” for suppositious problems of a science. It wants to say how a “scientific community” shapes around a theory or how they interact with each other, and when a dictated paradigm encounters with its weakness period by facing “Anomalies” that as a result make question on its credibility, then what will happen to its supporters, and by which mechanism, a formed scientific community terminated by appearing hesitation over its scientific ability to solve its followers problem and showing their way in future, and gradually leads the paradigm to a scientific revolution point and ultimately it shifts from an exist paradigm to a new one. Or why one paradigm is replaced by another one and how would be the quality and procedure of “shifting”. Furthermore, Kuhn showed the mechanism of “incommensurability” among different paradigm devotees and competing paradigms, and how the two groups of scientists see different things at the time that they look from the same point in the same direction.

Paradigm in some way is a kind of a “Structure” theory. One of its goals is to analyze the normal science structure that a paradigm has come to exist in it. Kuhn believes that when anomalies shake the foundations of a dominant paradigm, it will alarm for a “crisis” that perhaps it will be evidence for the time of scientific revolution and necessity of emerging new theory and a paradigm that finally should have more capacity for problem solving. Kuhn’s examples show that each of normal science during the history of a science tasted being in the position of normal science and they passed “pre and post-paradigm” atmosphere and scientific revolutions, change them till now.

Kuhn’s “common Disciplinary (as common possession of the specialists of a particular discipline) Matrix (a composed of ordered elements of various sorts, each requiring further specification)” or on other hand paradigm, is a community of scientists with common values, methods, tools and techniques, and also with a unification of theoretical and even metaphysical approach, gathers them around it, and finally replaced by their successor through a scientific revolution path.

The founder of Paradigm theory by using some other scientific theories as example wants to say, it is a common trend of all sciences and it is repeated during scientific history each paradigm would not taste a permanent position and this cyclic will repeat in future. He believes that when a scientific revolution happens it would revises the community’s perspective that experiences it, and that change, effects the structure of post-revolutionary textbooks and research direction and gradually its publication, also by starting of the Normal science era, some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time shape as supplying the foundation for further practice around an accepted model or pattern that he name it paradigm, that its work is to sets the problem to be solved.

Normal Science or an established paradigm in some way make a kind of conservative atmosphere and its scientists try to save it, so it directs to articulate of those scientific phenomena and theories that the paradigm already supplies. A Successful paradigm tries to solve its member’s problems and save its scientific achievements to make them permanent. And on-going fact-gathering, is at the service of paradigm stabilization and its conformation to fix it more.

A paradigm’s aim is to display the order by approve its long accepted belief by a sets of repeated scientific problem-solving process. Every skilled member of a paradigm community also engages in puzzle-solving process that till a time has not been solved by others. This scientific forward movement will continue till a scientist faces a situation that the on-going law or the theory doesn’t work well. This kind of scientists always can evaluate its weak points so they suggest new way for their scientific problem solving and their logic suggestion will attract community to change direction and progressively a scientific revolution lead them shift to a new paradigm, although some fanatic and conservative scientists may show resistance to conserve an on-going normal science, but the majority of its community will approach the new theory and finally shape a new paradigm that could determine a new normal-science era that brings by a community with shared beliefs.

It should be clear that scientific paradigm shifts or change, could have deferent angle size, so a science can face with deferent size of scientific revolution or changes, it could range in a spectrum from small to very large ones, it should be mentioned that new sort of facts or any important change in an on-going paradigm perception, does not necessarily lead to a paradigm shift. But it is clear that when serious anomalies appear and crisis hits a paradigm, it leads to large-scale change, at this time scientists usually develop theoretical concepts which can themselves point the way to discovery new theory and the new successful one would become a paradigm. It is also noticeable that new discoveries are not the only destructive or constructive source of paradigm changes, the source of crisis can be any problem (that considers in normal science as a puzzle) or anomalies that can be seen as a counter instance. The crises will lose the rules of normal puzzle-solving or the rules for normal research and paradigm-nature fit, ultimately it leads to increase varieties of the paradigms and at the end of the day it will permit a new paradigm to emerge and dominate the science. When transition from one paradigm to other one is complete, the career will have change its view of the ground, its methods, and its goals. It’s a fact that crisis alone is not enough for shift.

Paradigms play as form-giver to scientific atmosphere and as a vehicle for scientific theory, it determine each entity in which way, should behave. Paradigm also clears nature of scientific research, as Kuhn said “since nature is too complex and varied to be explored at random, that map is as essential as observation and experiment to science's continuing development. Through the theories they embody, paradigms prove to be constitutive of the research activity”. (Kuhn 1996 p109) Paradigms supply scientists a map and the directions that is essential for map-making.

 Paradigm’s Textbooks are educational vehicles for the continuation of normal science. After a scientific revolution, post-revolutionary science activity will start to reconstruct history of science that is regularly completed by its texts. Kuhn believes that a series of individual discoveries and inventions, group together and represent the modem body of technical knowledge. He refers to paradigm testing conception that arises only after persistent failure to solve an important puzzle has given rise to crisis. Testing occurs as part of the competition between two rival paradigms of a scientific community. Kuhn also confesses that no theory ever solves all the puzzles which are confronted at a given time; nor is the solutions already achieved often perfect.

Kuhn as physicist who shifted to philosophy says, if all followers of a community answer back to each anomaly as a source of crisis or involve each new theory advanced by an associate, science would stop, or if no one react to anomalies or the brand-new theories in high-risk ways, there would be few or no revolution and as result no develop in sciences.

By these explanations, now a look at the signed strategic US-India nuclear deal, as a second political, technological as well as commercial key step on the road to a shifting in India’s world policy, will clear the new Indian paradigm, internally and externally. Oxford-educated economist, Mr. Manmohan Singh (1932- ) completed his first major revolutionary step, which became operational through his liberalization of economic reforms when he served as Finance Minister during Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao (1991–1996). India’s entering in its new world policy phase got more completed when in 2005 G. W. Bush and Manmohan Singh signed 123 Agreement 3, concerning the Indian nuclear issue. It could be considered as a revolutionary change for India’s path toward the US, as well as others, mostly in the West Bloc. “The 123 Agreement has been widely seen as a strategic coup for both states 4”. Some main steps forward after this agreement are:

a) The Hyde Act passed by American Congress, to enable its government to consider India as an exception in U.S.A nuclear non-proliferation policy and made it able to transfer sensitive technology to India in this regards. b) It facilitates India-IAEA 5 agreement for safeguarding India’s civil nuclear reactors. c) It also make possible an agreement with NSG 6 so the nuclear weaponized India, became able to buy nuclear fuel, etc without signing the NPT 7.

 “The 123 Agreement has a clear purpose: to "enable full civil nuclear energy cooperation between the Parties. peaceful nuclear cooperation and not to affect the unsafeguarded nuclear activities of either Party (Article 2 of 123)” the first time that a state possessing nuclear weapons outside the framework of the NPT, namely India, has had its civil nuclear energy program "brought into the fold." 8.

The question is how new paradigm came to exist and got shaped, when India and U.S.A situated in two opposite sides during previous world paradigm. In the Cold War era India’s problem-solver was the U.S.A rival, USSR, in front of the US-backed Pakistan as its operational enemy. The following fast changes in the world trend entered this two in new paradigm:

 a) India’s Economic reforms changed it from a socialized unit to capitalized one. It happened as a major shift in India investment policy. b) Common values (democracy, English heritage, etc), c) Common security threat (terrorism, etc). d) Collapse of USSR. e) Post 2001 sep. 11 process, f) China as a common factor, as U.S.A wants to bring “China to a global liberal order” 9 and at the same time it was India’s biggest rival. g) U.S.A ambiguity about Pakistan as its previous ally in south Asia, etc,

These factors, plus some high rank delegations exchanging, during a decade, shift them to implement the Next Steps in Strategic Partnership (NSSP) in 2004 and progressively the natural allies entered in the new paradigm of cooperation and transformed them to a Strategic Partnership 10 in 2005 by signing the nuclear deal. From this time Indo-U.S.A partnership places in a new period and its new normal science atmosphere starts. They boost their assistance in some field that in the near past was iced. So, although Indian said no to U.S.A repeated world-wide invitation to presence in Iraq war and after it. In the new paradigm India started economic, political, financial, intelligence, etc operation in occupied-Afghanistan, beside U.S.A and others, which shaped the new alliance, was reacted by Pakistani side. Another case in this regard happened when a founder of NAM 11 took place in the World’s Powers campus side in IAEA and voted three times against Iran peaceful nuclear program.

This diversion in India’s world policy appeared as a puzzle solver in new paradigm for India, by a) Entering in cooperation with US military mechanism in South Asia 12 as well as cooperation with US East Asia partners 13, bilaterally and multilaterally. b) Improvement of Indian position toward its traditional rivals like China and Pakistan. c) Backing India’s demand for emerging as permanent member for U.N Security Council, formally by US highest 14 official rank. d) Improvement in Indo-U.S.A bilateral trade 15, etc.

But as Kuhn believes although paradigm is responsible for solving many problems, but it doesn’t solve all of them. So India’s policy-makers at the same time of moving in this trend, which sets them closer to US and its allies, they show their decision to diversify their international relation with other blocs of power, as well as second rank world’s power like the EU and its main members, or Japan. Also India had participated in the BRICS bloc (the countries that by 2030 will shape world new powers) 16 actively, and expanded its relation with some regional structures like ASEAN 17.

India is showing that it cannot rely to one side among world’s powers or its traditional mainstays in all aspects. For instance India is diversifying its energy supplier resources. So it is looking in Middle East, Central Asia, Russia, Africa, etc 18 for its energy resource need. In military filed also India at the same time that continues buying military equipment from its traditional suppliers like Russia, signed big deals with other main world supplier such as Israel, United State, France, etc. So Delhi became the destination of so many world leaders that try to sign new contract during last five years. The most important leaders like Barack Obama, Nicolas Sarkozy, Angela Merkel, and Vladimir Putin had selected Delhi as their trip-destination. In trade filed also India diversified its import and export targets 19. At least it can imagine four main scenarios for adopting such policy by Indian decision-makers:

A)    It dedicates to a new-given role by world powers to new-India in new paradigm and so India is preparing itself for doing the job well.

B)      It dedicates to the potential threats that India in new paradigm feels (From China, US side, etc) in future.

C)    It shows an expansionist India that in new paradigm wants to come out of its traditional policy and follow an expansionist policy in the region.

D)     Mix of the three items

India at the eve of 21^st century faced a new world order, and as naturally every country by facing new paradigm will chose an exact puzzle-solving system for itself, India accepted solution for its problems like poverty, non-developing, low economic growth rate, long facing with powerful rivals like China, military weakness, etc was the on-going India world policy trend that has directed it toward closing to US campus. Whiles India since 1947 (Independence) till now at least had tasted two main paradigm; from 1950s till 1990s as a USSR ally, related to the main two super powers (U.S.A, USSR), and at the same time as major non-aligned member among the others. The second paradigm is started with two major steps, economic reforms toward capitalizing its economic rules especially investment, that are become operational in 1990s and finally signing 123 nuclear agreement in 2005 at the threshold of 21^st century, that completed this process fairly during 21^st first decade. So India steps toward its new paradigm as a destination that leads it to became Strategic Partner for US. Although these moves solved some of India’s problems, and internationally improved its position and its relationship with the world’s major players, but India’s behavior shows that it doesn’t feel confident and safe enough in this new mechanism. So this anomaly forces India to have some reactions. One the reaction that could be mentioned in this regard is increasing in India arm-expenditures and becoming first arms importer in the world, which a big competition to capture this new big market is going on between world’s largest arm-producers. At the time that India’s direction and move in transitional world is one of the important world’s trend determinants in future and now, putting the Indo-US Nuclear Deal as a turning point in India’s world policy would make clearer the path that India is going and maybe will go. But in some way India’s behaviors now, shows a kind of flicker steps toward US campus and despite of on-going trend in India’s policy, the future will answer to question of future.

References:

1-                 US–INDIAN STRATEGIC COOPERATION INTO THE 21ST CENTURY - ASIAN SECURITY STUDIES - US Army College - Edited by Sumit Ganguly, Brian Shoup, and Andrew Scobell - published 2006 by Routledge

2-                 The Structure of Scientific revolutions by Thomas Samuel Kuhn in 1962 - Third Edition in 1996 - The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 1962, 1970, 1996

3-                 This name refers to Section 123 of the U.S.A-Atomic Energy Act that under this Act transfer of nuclear technology to other countries is banned.

4-                 http://www.reading.ac.uk/123agreement/123-project-overview.aspx

5-                 International Atomic Energy Agency

6-                 Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is a group of nuclear supplier countries who seek the non-proliferation nuclear weapons. It was a reaction to India nuclear test in 1974

7-                 The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament.

8-                 http://www.reading.ac.uk/123agreement/123-project-overview.aspx

9-                 http://gt2030.com/2012/06/01/the-indian-ocean-region-and-the-challenges-of-order-building-in-a-post-unipolar-post-western-world/  By Andrew Phillips

10-              US-India Strategic Partnership: Implications for China – by Zhang Guihong - http://isq.sagepub.com/content/42/3-4/277

11-              Non-Aligned Movement has 115 members. It came to exist in 1955

12-              http://csis.org/files/publication/1203qus_seasia.pdf

13-              http://csis.org/files/publication/1203qindia_asia.pdf

14-              www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-11711007‎

15-              http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c5330.html#2005

16-              Four developing countries like Brazil, Russia, India, China establish it 2006 and in 2010 South Africa also attend to it.

17-              Association of South East Asian Nations is a geo-political and economic organization of ten countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed in 1967 

18-              http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=IN

19-              http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c5330.html#2005

Course:

Research Methodologies and Methods
by: Dr. Mohammad Samiei

Article by:

Seyed Mostafa Mostafavi - M.A Students in Indian Studies

Faculty of world studies - University of Tehran

1392/2/25

+ نوشته شده در پنجشنبه بیست و ششم اردیبهشت ۱۳۹۲ ساعت 20:22 شماره پست: 288

 human concern over controlling Power-holder and power as most dangerous phenomenon for humanity Rightly, and the most corrupt-maker element in the mankind history, lead men to taste deferent kind of ruling society system, and based on this philosophy wised Indian revolutionary leaders has chosen federal system as most effective structure to make them able to came over their challenges after independent from British ruler in 1947, so new India that contain vast diversity, is shaped geo-politically by states and some independents territories based on federalism, and power that was shared in National, state and local level and politically within dependent Executive, legislative and judiciary level with powerful-direct elected parliament.

Indian revolutionary activists were aware of power and power-holder potential problems and if power gathers in the hand of one person, a group or class, the disaster that will happen ultimately, thus they try to regulate ruling system well by choosing federal system.

Indian Federal system:

Part 11 of the Indian constitution that on January 26 1950 came to force defines the power distribution between the central or federal government and its State governments. In federal system national and states government work together to put in to effect and enforce law and punish law breakers. Federalism in India has a strong preference towards the central Government. Some unique features of federalism in India are:

Ø Indian State representation in the Parliament (Lok Sabha) is widely deferent from one state to another and it depends on a number of factors, including demography and total land area.

Ø No double citizenship, No separate citizenship for country and state.

Ø The consent of a state is not required by the Parliament to alter its boundaries.

Ø No state, except Jammu and Kashmir, can draw its own Constitution.

Ø No state has the right to secede.

Ø No division of public services.

The Union and states have independent executive staffs fully controlled by respected governments and executive power of the states and the Centre are extended on issues they are empowered to legislate.

Union control over states:

According to the Article 356 of the Constitution of India, states must exercise their executive power in agreement with the laws made by the Central government.

 Article 357 calls upon every state not to impede on the executive power of the Union within the states.

 Articles 352 to 360 contain provisions which empower the Centre to take over the executive of the states on issues of national security or on the breakdown of constitutional machinery.

 Governors are appointed by the Central government to oversee states. The president can dissolve the state assembly under the recommendation of the council of ministers by invoking Article 356 if and when states fail to comply with directives given by the Centre.

The Constitution provides that, except in a few cases, union law trumps state law. If any provision of a law made by the Legislature of a State is repugnant to any provision of a law made by Parliament which Parliament is competent to enact, or to any provision of an existing law with respect to one of the matters enumerated in the Concurrent List, then, the law made by Parliament, whether passed before or after the law made by the Legislature of such State, or, as the case may be, the existing law, shall prevail and the law made by the Legislature of the State shall, to the extent of the repugnancy, be void. There is an exception to this in cases "where a law made by the Legislature of a State with respect to one of the matters enumerated in the Concurrent List contains any provision repugnant to the provisions of an earlier law made by Parliament or an existing law with respect to that matter, then, the law so made by the Legislature of such State shall, if it has been reserved for the consideration of the President and has received his assent, prevail in that State Provided that nothing in this clause shall prevent Parliament from enacting at any time any law with respect to the same matter including a law adding to, amending, varying or repealing the law so made by the Legislature of the State."

Union level matter in Indian federal system:

Union list consists of 99 items (previously 97 items) on which the parliament has exclusive power to legislate with including: defence, armed forces, arms and ammunition, atomic energy, foreign affairs, war and peace, citizenship, extradition, railways, shipping and navigation, airways, posts and telegraphs, telephones, wireless and broadcasting, currency, foreign trade, inter-state trade and commerce, banking, insurance, control of industries, regulation and development of mines, mineral and oil resources, elections, audit of Government accounts, constitution and organisation of the Supreme Court, High Courts and union public service commission, income tax, custom duties and export duties, duties of excise, corporation tax, taxes on capital value of assets, estate duty, terminal taxes.

States level matter in Indian federal system:

State list consists of 61 items (previously 66 items). Uniformity is desirable but not essential on items in this list: maintaining law and order, police forces, healthcare, transport, land policies, electricity in state, village administration, etc. the state legislature has exclusive power to make laws on these subjects. But in certain circumstances, the parliament can also make laws on subjects mentioned in the State list.

Though states have exclusive powers to legislate with regards to items on the State list, articles 249, 250, 252, and 253 state situations in which the federal government can legislate on these items.

Advantage of Federal system:

v Federalism provides combine a strong central government to maintain order with strong states government.

v Federalism is a god way to rule large size countries with divers population

v  Because every states has a copy of national government so it make a suitable situation to serve as training grounds for national politicians and as laboratories in which new ideas can be tested.

v Permits diversity and diffusion (distribution) of power

v Local government can handle local problem better

v More access point for political participation.

v Protect individual right against concentrated government power

v Raises experimentation and innovation

Disadvantage and arguments against Federal system:

v State government may resist national plans and policies epically powerful states can block plans

v May permit economic inequality across statesor racial discrimination

v Some see expansion of national powers as a danger

v Make national unity difficult to achieve and maintain

v Law enforcement and justice are uneven

v Small unit may face lack expertise and money

v May promote local dominance by especial interest 

Central government role in Federal system:

v Declare war

v Creation and maintain armed force

v Establish foreign policies

v Regulate interstate and foreign trade

v Coin money

v Make copyright and patent law

v Establish postal offices

State government role in Federal system:

v Establish local government

v Establish and maintain schools

v Regulate trade within states

v Conduct elections

v Provide for public safety

v Provide and establish corporations

Central - State government joint role in Federal system:

Raise and collect taxes

v Provide for the public welfare

v Justice criminals

v Borrow money

v Licence banks

v Build roads

Course:

Politic and Governing in India
by: Dr. Mandana Tesheyar

Article by:

Seyed Mostafa Mostafavi - M.A Student in Indian Studies

Faculty of world studies - University of Tehran

1392/1/25

+ نوشته شده در دوشنبه بیست و سوم اردیبهشت ۱۳۹۲ ساعت 12:49 شماره پست: 283

In the name of God the munificent the merciful

Thomas Samuel Kuhn (1922-1996) masterpiece and most referenced book, The Structure of Scientific revolutions brought the “Paradigm” to exist in 1962 , as conception and scientific tools and also a theory to become one of the useful method in scientific analysis, Kuhn as one of the most influential 20^th century philosophy of science by this enterprise mainly pointed natural sciences, but his theory found itself more successful in social sciences than the Natural campus and most welcomed by scientists of social campus and subsequently make a revolution to analyse social phenomenon and it shows itself effective in “problem solving” in social field. Kuhn’s method is the outcome of his dominance over historical trends and theories of science philosophy, especially his conversance over natural sciences theories like astronomy, physics and chemistry, as frequently exemplified in his book explanations to verify his theory.

The paradigm takes meaning in the concept of “normal science” and development of sciences that “for a time provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners”. Normal science or conventional period of a science situated against “Scientific Revolution”, the tendency that every science experiences during its history and the development of any science will be happened throughout the shifting between the normal science and the scientific revolutionary.

The conception of Paradigm as a theory, is trying to have a clear Description-explanation on how one dominant scientific theory at the exact time is entering in its normal science phase, to have “puzzle-solving” role or ability to find “acceptable solution” for its suppositious problems of a science. It wants to say how a “scientific community” shapes around a theory or how they interact with each other, and when a dictated paradigm encounters with its weakness period by facing “Anomalies” that make question of its credibility, then what will happen to its supporters and by which mechanism a formed scientific communities terminated by appearing hesitation over its scientific ability, and gradually leads the paradigm to a scientific revolution point and ultimately it shifts from an exist paradigm to a new one. And why one paradigm is replaced by another one or what will be the quality and procedure of “shifting”. Furthermore, Kuhn’s aim showed the mechanism of “incommensurability” among different paradigm devotees that is highlighted in the book.

Kuhn’s theory in somehow is a kind of “Structure” theory. Its final goal is to analyse the normal science structure that read out a paradigm and science development. Kuhn believes that when anomalies relax the foundation of a dominant paradigm, it will alarm for a “crisis” that perhaps it will show the time for scientific revolution and necessity of emerging new theory and paradigm that ultimately should have more capacity for problem solving. Kuhn by exemplifying space theory indicated that had ruled history of astronomy sciences for centuries, as it is listed by him, Ptolemaic astronomy, Aristotle, Galileo, Copernicus, Newton then Einstein, that each of them tasted being in the position of normal science and they passed pre and post-paradigm atmosphere and each of them became normal science or “common Disciplinary Matrix” of their time that a community of scientists with a common values, methods, tools and techniques, and also with a unification of theoretical and even metaphysical approach collect around itself, and finally replaced by their successor through a scientific revolution path. Kuhn by using some others’ science theory as an example wants to say, it is a common trend of all sciences and it is repeated during scientific history.

Kuhn paradigm shift is not a “Gestalt” commuting and shifting between Duck and Rabbit, therefor a shifted person from one paradigm to new one will not return to previous one, and a kind of incommensurability will govern between two paradigm’s followers.     

Despite, Kuhn’s theory is efficient; the question is why we should trust Mr Kuhn’s theory that is concentrated on a natural-logical scientific shifting trend in philosophy and history of sciences. That is a cyclic and an on-going process, so who knows maybe in near future, the time of Kuhn’s theory also finish and his logical philosophy also adequate to the history of scientific.

Course:

  Research Methodologies and Methods
by:   Dr. Mohammad Samiei

Book reviow

 by:

Seyed Mostafa Mostafavi - M.A Students in Indian Studies

Faculty of world studies - University of Tehran

1392/2/7

 + نوشته شده در دوشنبه نهم اردیبهشت ۱۳۹۲ ساعت 12:10 شماره پست: 279